Poston

The Poston Relocation Center was located in the isolated desert wilderness of Arizona. As temperatures often reached 115 degrees, residents would pour water on their canvas cots to keep cool in what they jokingly nicknamed “Camp Roastin.”[1] One ninth-grader remembered,

Upon my arrival to the Poston Relocation Center, I stood bewildered, glaring at the hot dusty desert, wondering how we could survive. When my family and I were given our barrack number we spread our blankets and tried to put things in order. The first day here was so hot I should not know how I should express how I felt then. Whoever I met carried wet towels on his heads. Even in the mess hall people ate with wet towels on their heads. Small children had not eaten because of the heat. Even grownups lost their appetite. That night, as I tumbled into bed, I kept thinking how we could ever survive in such a place and how the hot dusty soil could be made into fertile fields.[2]

Don Elberson, a WRA sociologist, stood by many of the families as they set eyes on their new homes for the first time:

It was brutal. Some days we had to process five hundred or more people. . . . But nothing mitigated the moment when I had to take them to their new homes. . . . You’d have to take these people into this dingy excuse for a room, twenty by twenty-five feet at best. These were people who’d left everything behind, sometimes fine houses. I learned after the first day not to enter with the family, but to stand outside. It was too terrible to witness the pain in people’s faces, too shameful for them to be seen in this degrading situation.[3]

Tadashi Kowta added, “I remember the dust storms and the deep dry powdery dirt in which our feet sank when we walked.” Kowta had to cover up the knot holes that let wind and sand into their barrack with the ends of tin cans. He also remembered his father obtaining a large tank in which to grow carp, providing the blood to his mother, Riyo, as a means of strengthening her health. The majority of those at Poston, as in other centers, began producing food as soon as they were able to supplement the meager fare provided by the government.[4] Another resident, Sod Nakashima, also recalled his initial impressions:

As the bus turned the corner we had our windows down and we got a mouthful of our first home-town dust. My, what a bitter dirty taste that was. . . . The heat was terrible, and the dust was awful. Our baggage looked as if they had just received a new coating of camouflage paint. As we entered the empty apartments, we wondered how we could make them so they would be livable. We didn’t need any waste basket or garbage can. We just shoved everything through a knot hole in the floor. I’ll never forget that first “meal” in camp, a dab of rice and two slices of baloney. The water tasted as though somebody put some dead animal in the tank. Our stomachs were upset and we found practically everybody suffering from “Postonitis,” or the “Poston Blues.”[5]

Nakashima then remembered how the church at Poston first began to meet:

Hazel Morikawa, the church secretary, also recalled the origin of the Poston I Christian church:

Appointments were made by the denomination for ministries to be carried on in camp: Kichitaro Yamamoto for the issei, Jitsuo Morikawa and Paul Nagano for the nisei, . . . Once behind barbed wire, we rolled up our sleeves for action. Denominational differences, although recognized and respected, were set aside for the pleasure of working together as Christians. No longer holding grudges, no longer depressed, we worked hard, always confident that God was right there as He is everywhere.[9]

The church at Poston cooperated interdenominationally and did not squabble over members. Prior to Easter 1943, for example, the church council decided that “baptism eith[er] by sprinkling or immersion will be done under Poston Christian Church under no denomination—but as members of the church of Christ. When the members of baptism return to their respective homes, they may join the church they desire.”[10] The necessity of internment reminded the church of its togetherness for the gospel. Paul Nagano crafted pews and pulpits for the church sanctuaries from discarded crates and scrapwood from the barracks.[11] Tai Shigaki helped “to publish the religious newsletter, which was, at that time, the only means of camp-wide communication.”[12] Eventually,

They published a weekly bulletin, drafted a Constitution, held special evangelistic meetings whenever they had an outside guest, and organized a New Year’s convention. In other words, church activities were very similar to the ones they held outside of the barbed wires. Once when the blind evangelist Kanichi Niisato spoke, more than 600 gathered to hear him.[13]

Poston also boasted multiple choirs due to its abundance of musical talent. There was always singing in the Poston Christian Churches and many opportunities to serve through the Christian Endeavor Societies. Muts Okada was only a teenager, but she remembered that “singing in the choir and in trios was a diversion from the daily doldrums of camp life. In spite of our incarceration, it was a time to sing praises to God for His love and mercy.”[14] Kayoko Suzukida’s mother was “converted and baptized in the Colorado River just as Jesus had been baptized in the Jordan River. Examples of Christian goodness impressed her deeply, and she accepted Christ as her Savior.”[15]

In addition, many non-Japanese friends demonstrated kindness to the Nikkei through their words and deeds. In early 1943, John Powell, the educational director at Poston who grew up as a minister’s son, wrote an impassioned appeal to John Provinse, WRA Chief of the Community Management Division, to revise the WRA policy on religion.[16] Others such as Dr. Frank Herron Smith, chairman of the Western Protestant Commission for Japanese Service, encouraged the internees through his preaching:

Christians . . . know that the Father will take them by the best way and that the best way for you here leads through Poston. A few months ago you had no idea that Poston would figure in your life. You did not even know it existed probably, but now you have come here and you may be sure that the Father is leading you by the right way.[17]

Others such as Alice Grube, a Presbyterian missionary, and Bertha Starkey, a Methodist missionary, came to live at Poston to minister to the internees.[18] Nell Finley left her position as a YWCA secretary in Honolulu to become the head of social service work at Poston. Sunday school teachers from the Mennonite Brethren Church in Reedley, California, would make long treks to visit and Dr. Ralph Mayberry, the director of the Baptist Mission, traveled regularly from Los Angeles to visit the internees in Poston, Manzanar, and Rohwer.[19] Mayberry was often joined by students from the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (BIOLA): Thelma “Duddie” Dudrow and Mary Katherine Evans. Hazel Morikawa made a special note of further denominational assistance received by the Poston church:

The Baptist headquarters in New York, represented by John Thomas, assumed the responsibility to underwrite the cost of equipment and materials needed to run the basic activities of the church, and the Los Angeles Baptist City Mission Society took on the hard task of locating materials that were often difficult to find in wartime and getting them to us. Recognizing the importance of education, the leadership set up a higher-education assistance program to find placement in schools and to give financial aid to students. American Baptist churches around the country sent Sunday-school materials, wrote personal letters, and sent gifts to children at Christmas; men and women from the denomination made frequent visits and worked constantly in our behalf.[20]

At Christmas, as in the other centers, Christian churches across America made certain to provide a gift for every child. In 1942, “Over 7000 presents, many of them already beautifully wrapped, have been received from churches situated in the smallest villages to cities as large as Philadelphia.”[21] “Sewing groups made bunnies and soft dolls. Others made wooden animals, trains, and trucks. The Friends collected more than eleven thousand gifts in Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Seattle, and other cities. One dedicated builder turned out fifty toy trucks.”[22] May Wake Iwahashi recalled that first Christmas:

As Christmas approached, we tried to bring about some vestige of normality, especially for the children. We made carvings from colorful toothbrush handles, discarded lumber, and driftwood. We made decorations out of colored paper and tissues that were used to pack oranges and hung the decorations on dried freeform mesquite trees.[23]

Every block in Poston sponsored a Christmas party with Santa handing out gift-wrapped presents to every child under fifteen. The AFSC also donated baby clothes, diapers, and formula for the infants. Ed Nakawatase, himself a beneficiary of baby clothes, would later volunteer with the AFSC as a college student in the 1960s. He wrote, “The package was an indication that there were other voices, however small, to counter the hatred and racism that was so predominant against Japanese Americans.”[24] Momo Iwakiri recalled how gifts continued to arrive each successive Christmas:

This year many boxes of gifts were mailed to Poston, gifts from practically every state in the country to the children in the camp. . . . It gave us the feeling that we were remembered by others. It was perhaps, our last Christmas in Poston. One cannot comprehend or estimate how much the gifts did for the residents on Christmas 1944.[25]

Rev. Nagano tried to explain this phenomenon as a tangible expression of Christian fellowship:

The common experience of injustice, suffering and deprivation brought people together in a spiritual fellowship of genuine mutuality and oneness. Differences and status were eliminated as everyone was suffering a common predicament. There is a true koinonia (deep fellowship of love) in suffering together. In this sense, the camp life was an unforgettable experience of joy and fellowship.[26]

Soul care in the center was greatly needed as moral and ethical problems eventually arose. Some residents stole or hoarded scrap lumber to make household furniture. Many conflicts in the barracks had to be resolved because walls were not soundproof. Families dealt with the very real problem of keeping little babies from crying due to rations on infant formula while others complained about the lack of privacy. Restless youths often got into fights because of the absence of positive community activities. Ministers were busy enough trying to handle logistical problems like procuring meeting halls, finding materials and leaders for the worship services, and organizing ministries. Lay persons often counseled and cared for souls out of sheer necessity. As a result, the Poston church quickly became a source of strength for the camp’s residents.

The church was divided into three groups, however, because the camp itself was spread over three locations separated by distance and barbed wire. “Affectionately called ‘The Circuit,’ [Paul] Nagano and other pastors set up weekly rotational schedules to ensure that preachers were provided at the different camp worship services. Nagano and others would travel between Poston I, II and III, Manzanar and Gila River, often preaching at multiple camps on the same day.”[27] Nagano often joked that they had a “captive audience” to draw many people toward Christianity’s “wonderful message of the Savior.”[28] He and some friends also compiled a chorus book with “hymns of assurance and joy” that were “very therapeutic. . . . It meant so much . . . to have that very naïve and simple faith in God in a time of uneasy, unknown future.”[29] As the apostle Paul had exhorted the church at Colossae:

And above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony. And let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, to which indeed you were called in one body. And be thankful. Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom, singing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness in your hearts to God. And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him (Colossians 3:14-17).

Once again, the church drew upon the time-tested foundations of Christian fellowship, biblical encouragement, and musical worship. The following accounts share stories from each of the camp’s three churches.

Poston I

From August 24-29, 1942, Poston I Camp conducted a VBS with about 600 children in five different locations. Rev. William Kobayashi remembered that “one of the very first things they did in the summer of 1942 was to organize a successful Vacation Church School. With all that dust and sand and heat, yet there were so many children in the camps that the Vacation School was a must. Hundreds of children were enrolled in every camp and dozens of teachers volunteered their service.”[30] Leaders Masami Toyotome and Hideo Aoki stated their five-fold purpose: “(1) to win the young ones to Christ, (2) to provide character training for young ones, (3) good use of spare time (especially now), (4) relieve parents from burden of looking after children all day, (5) leadership training for teachers.”[31] Many of the Poston I staff would help to start Vacation Bible Schools at the Poston II and III camps as well. This ministry, in particular, reached rural farm children who had never been exposed to such religious activities:

Many of the pupils have never had any contacts with Christian Church and Sunday School activities and this has been the first experience they have had in the Christian program. The school has provided Bibles to a large number of pupils and the pupils are very appreciative about this and take great pride in owning one for the first time.[32]

After serving in VBS that summer, Henry and Itsuko Teragawa were then asked to serve as Sunday school superintendents. Itsuko recalled,

The First Junior Church of Poston (ages 9-15) began on August 30, 1942 with worship services much like the evening young people’s services. Many youth became followers of Christ during this period:

A large camp with active Christian youth, Poston contained twelve ecumenical Protestant youth groups divided by age, four chapters of the Christian Endeavor Society, and an active YMCA. Young Postonites, with the assistance of adult pastors, held an eight-day conference and revival in the spring of 1943 that attracted nine hundred attendees per night. At the final service, 175 Nikkei reportedly answered the call to dedicate their lives to Christ.[34]

Rev. Yasushi Wada shared his recollections:

As a young leader, I observed the marvelous working of the Holy Spirit as it was manifested in every aspect of church activities: the evangelistic preaching and outreach of the pastors, an outdoor Christmas service with a two-hundred-voice choir singing the “Hallelujah Chorus” by Handel, and a daily vacation Bible school that went for two months despite the lack of craft materials.[35]

Countless youth shared in the camp publication about how their Christian faith grew during the internment. Frances Kaji could not recall how or why she began to attend the Poston I Christian Church, but admitted that it may have been out of boredom:

Yasuko Yamamoto added,

Outside I went to beautiful churches, not tar-papered barracks like these in Poston. Somehow these barrack churches seem more beautiful to me now than the finest church in the world. Why? Because here I was shown the road to happiness. . . . Junior Church helped me to prepare a room in my heart for Christ to live in. I am happy now in God’s love, and through the Junior Church I want to be near Christ.[37]

Tets Yamashita had been twelve years old in February 1942 when Rev. Jitsuo Morikawa baptized both him and his mother at the final baptismal service of the Terminal Island Baptist Mission. He continued to grow spiritually in the church at Poston:

In the desert of Poston, the stained glass of a church window was neither missed nor even thought of. Our Sunday-school classes were held in wooden, tarpaper-covered barracks. Learning from the Bible and singing praises to God only made our fellowship more precious. To prepare for the worship service held in the school auditorium, I helped line up the chairs.[38]

As a young boy, Kei Kokobun enjoyed worship services at Poston I and singing in the choir. Sadly, his father, Jingoro, a pastor who had served the Nikkei community in the Imperial Valley, had been taken to a federal detention facility for leading two Japanese-language schools in Calexico and El Centro. Kei graduated from Poston I High School in 1944 with the goal of becoming a minister. He did not have the finances, but he prayed earnestly for a miracle and received a scholarship from the United Christian Missionary Society (UCMS) of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) to attend Drake University and Chapman College in Los Angeles. The UCMS continued to support him as he attended the Pacific School of Religion in Berkeley. He would go on to pastor the All Peoples Christian Church in Los Angeles and found that by trusting God, miracles happen.[39] Harry Baba finished high school at Poston I in 1945. He went on to complete his seminary education and to serve in ministry with the Evergreen Baptist Church, Memorial Baptist Church, the Los Angeles Holiness Church, and JEMS.

On March 14, 1943, the Poston I Christian Church held a dedication service for volunteers leaving for the armed forces. Rev. Morikawa presented each of the volunteers with a pocket-sized New Testament and a daily devotional entitled, “Strength for Service to God and Country.”[40] The Poston I Church celebrated its first anniversary on June 6, 1943[41] and Rev. Kowta wrote in that week’s edition of the Poston Witness,

As we look back over the work of the Church in the past year, we can readily think of, without being boastful about them, many things we have accomplished. The contribution of our Church to the life of Poston, either directly or indirectly has been tremendous. This has been due, of course, to the constant help of our never-failing God, but it has been due also to the whole-hearted co-operation of the members and friends of the Church. As we go into the work of the second year, let us be united more fully and meet the challenge of the hour more satisfactorily.[42]

Mr. Hideo Aoki, who pastored the young people, viewed the transformation of the Poston desert as a metaphor for people’s souls as he expounded Psalm 116:9, “I will walk before the Lord in the land of the living.”

Poston II

Another congregation soon began to gather in the Poston II camp. Baptist layman, Riichi Satow, who arrived with his wife and nine children in the midst of a boiling July, recounted his role in starting the church:

As I went there (Poston II), I was hoping to see Christianity dominate the whole camp. I was really thinking, if I may exaggerate a little bit, of filling the camp with resounding echoes of hymns, upon arrival at the camp, no sooner had I put down my suitcase, I tried to find out if anyone before us had started a church yet. I first went to see Mr. Sakata, whom I had known before. When I asked him about it, he said, “Coming from a cool, comfortable place like Watsonville, I haven’t looked into the matter of church or anything in such boiling weather.” Reverend Takeda was present, laying on his back; you know it was too hot for him. Seeing me coming, he got up. So I asked him, “I’ve come to ask you people if you have started any church activities yet.” “No, not yet,” he said. So I told them, “That’s bad news. We have to start something as soon as possible.” And they agreed. You know, they were saying that because it was so hot out there, it made them totally absent minded, and they were at a loss as to what to do. Then, upon my suggestion, we began our church activities. Reverend Takeda really got on his feet and got everything going. Soon a prayer and planning meeting was scheduled. We called a prayer meeting at first, and later at the meeting we discussed how we should and could run our church in the camp.[44]

A representative worship service[45] at the Poston II Christian Church began with a piano prelude, the singing of The Doxology, and a call to worship.

This call to worship was followed by a recitation of the Lord’s prayer, a singing of Come Thou Almighty King, then a Scripture reading of 1 Corinthians 13. A prayer of response followed the reading of the Holy Scriptures, then announcements, and another hymn, The Church’s One Foundation. Clifford Nakadegawa, a future minister, preached the message on The Supremacy of Christian Love, followed by a third hymn, Love Divine, the benediction, and a postlude.

With assistance from Camp I, the Poston II Church also conducted its own DVBS and developed extensive ministries for the young people. The Herald, which recorded the activities of the Poston II Junior Fellowship, often included exhortations from church leaders. For example, Rev. Kohei Takeda reminded the young people, “We Can Not Escape From God” (Acts 17:28).

Takeda shared his personal testimony as well:

Takeda was a prolific writer who submitted many articles for the Poston II Christian Church bulletins. For example, he wrote,

On June 20, 1943, the Issei and Nisei congregations of the Poston II Church held a special combined service for Father’s Day. There was standing room only and it was very hot that day. Some confusion ensued as the Issei were not used to the Nisei practice of a chapel choir singing a response to the prayers and the Nisei were not used to the Issei practice of corporately proclaiming, “Amen” at the end of the pastoral prayer. Overall, however, it was a tremendous worship experience. They gave testimonies and the sermon in both Japanese and English and also sang hymns bilingually: Holy, Holy, Holy and Near the Cross.[49]

For Thanksgiving 1943, one resident gave thanks to God despite their undesirable circumstances:

Dr. Masao Takeshita, a lay leader, remembered the events of the church’s final Easter in Poston:

In retrospect, the church at Poston could see God’s blessings in their unique difficulties. They had been forced to grow closer to God and closer to one another by necessity, but like the resurrection could now see God’s glory through an event as horrible as Christ’s crucifixion. Toward the close of the internment, Rev. Takeda included his farewell to the church in writing:

Providentially, I became Pastor of the Poston Christian Church of Unit II on the first Sunday of June, 1943. I have served this church for 25 months to date. I am ashamed I have accomplished so little during these two years but I want to thank you for your cooperation to enable me to work with you during these two years. The friendship and fellowship I have enjoyed in these months of my ministry in this church shall be cherished long in my heart as precious memories and an asset of my Christian life. I will remember all of you in my prayers even when I shall not be able to have contact with you. . . . I shall relocate next month. Where? I don’t know myself. . . . May God bless each one of you richly. Mrs. Takeda joins me in extending our best wishes to you all.[52]

Alice Hatakeda, president of the Christian Youth Fellowship, also included her moving testimony:

Poston III

The Poston III Christian Church was founded as a sister church of Poston I[54] and the camp newsletter highlighted each of their pastors with an interview so that the flock could get to know its shepherds. Rev. Shosaku Asano had become a Christian as a young man “when his father, brother, and sister, the remaining members of his family, passed away within the course of three months.” He then served for nineteen years in Tokyo before pastoring a church in Monterey and Reedley, California.[55] Rev. Tameichi Okimoto had pastored the Tokyo Holiness Church before ministering at a church in San Diego prior to evacuation.[56] Rev. Keichi Imai had shepherded churches in Walnut Grove and Dinuba, California, before serving in Poston.[57] John Miyabe served in Poston III as the Director of Music and Publications Chairman[58] and Rev. Paul Nagano transferred from Poston I to become the Nisei pastor for the young people’s church in Poston III. Nagano addressed many social problems prevalent in camp and helped mentor troubled youth who kept getting into fights. He invited them to attend church where they could come to know God. Many of them did attend church and changed. A brilliant athlete in high school, Nagano also organized the boys into a club and became their advisor and basketball coach. Instead of treating them like criminals, he spoke to them kind-heartedly. Much in part to Nagano’s leadership, approximately 4,000 Nisei attended the Poston church’s pre-Easter conference in 1942 with a genuine interest to learn about God.[59]

As young Nikkei began volunteering for the army, Nagano preached the message, “Put Ye On the Lord Jesus Christ.”

Nagano acknowledged a biblical truth that Christians have known for centuries: “For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places” (Ephesians 6:12). The residents who suffered in the camps needed spiritual protection just as much as the soldier who risked his life in battle. So they were to put on this spiritual armor by trusting in the person and work of Jesus Christ.

The first major undertaking of the Poston III Church was a DVBS in August and September 1942 for over 200 students (ages 5-16). The first service of the Junior Church was then held on October 18, 1942. The church also organized singspirations and a chapel choir. Then the Poston III library was established in October 1942 with the largest donor being the Moody Bible Institute.[61] As one historian wrote,

The Church has come a long way. Starting with about 75 young people, the Nisei Church now has a membership of 400 members. The Issei Church started with about 50 and now boasts a membership of 300. The Sunday School started with about 100 pupils and now has a regular attendance of 550. However impressive the figures in growth of membership and attendance appear, the most important basis on which the success of the Church program can be judged is the fact that it has led multitudes of people to a deeper faith in something that is solid, a faith in God himself. The Church has presented to this community a citadel, a bulwark of strength wherein it can find a source of comfort and help in this troubled world.[62]

Rev. Nagano recalled asking at a midweek youth service, “‘How many of you can truthfully say that the past year in the relocation center has been the most glorious of your life?’ With upraised hands and radiant faces, a group of fifty young people responded unanimously.”[63] Many of their stories are recorded as follows.

Donald Iwahashi shared how his faith was strengthened through Christian fellowship. Like many, he was initially angry and bitter about the harsh conditions of the camp. Eventually, however, he began to turn his attention to more important spiritual matters:

What is the meaning and purpose of life? Through the influence of young Nisei Christian leaders, we felt the assurance of God’s presence in this concentration camp with all its cruelty and injustice. Though I had been baptized a year or so earlier, my search for faith in Christ became more profound and meaningful. I participated in prayer meetings, Bible studies, Sunday school, and other functions of the church with renewed vigor. By the grace of God, this experience in camp established the foundation of my Christian faith. It has transformed me to accept life’s vicissitudes with grace and thanksgiving, undergirded by His presence. Knowing that I am God’s child and redeemed by His grace has been a source of real joy.[64]

Marie Kurihara wrote about her experience at Poston:

My social life revolved around the church: attending Sunday worship, Bible study, prayer, and meeting other Christians during the week. Although they were Buddhists, my parents allowed their children to become Christians. . . . To be able to study the Bible was a nurturing experience. To this day, John 3:16 rings in my ears, a revelation that has been a lifelong belief: “For God so loved the world that He gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in Him may not perish but may have eternal life.” . . . Looking back over the years, I know that the hardships and struggles have enhanced my Christian beliefs. The internment was a very traumatic event for many Japanese Americans. For me, it was an event that led me to find God and Christ.[65]

Masakazu Konatsu expressed his gratitude to “know the true meaning of Christ’s suffering”[66] and Kay Murakami added,

I remember, too, going to Sunday school, vacation Bible school, and church. Florence Wake Nagano was my teacher, and Paul Nagano was senior pastor for Camp III. I can never forget the joyful singspiration times, the wonderful Bible stories, the inspiring testimonies about God in people’s lives, and the dedicated Christian leaders I came to love. Here it was that I came to love Jesus and desire to live for him.[67]

Arthur Tsuneishi received Christ in Poston at a meeting led by a visiting evangelist. He would eventually be ordained in the Holiness Church and pastor Nikkei congregations for many years.[68] Neither was Lloyd Wake a Christian when he entered the Poston III camp. He credited his conversion to the influence of his friends, Paul Nagano and John Miyabe, and remembered how his life was changed through these bonds of fellowship. Wake was also greatly impressed by the witness of Dr. Frank Herron Smith, superintendent of the Japanese Provisional Conference of the Methodist Church, who worked tirelessly to defend the Nikkei in the press and on radio. Henry Mukai experienced a spiritual transformation at Poston as well and quoted Isaiah 41:10 as part of his testimony:      

Fear thou not; for I am with thee. Be not dismayed; for I am thy God. I will strengthen thee; Yea, I will uphold thee with the right hand of My righteousness. . . . In the past year, I have found God just as He has here assured Isaiah, and as I must leave again from the midst of friends dear to me, I have but this of God’s assurance that all will be well; that I have nothing to fear about. This is God’s grace, God’s special favor to those who believe and trust in Him. . . . In return for my trust He gives me peace of heart and mind.[69]

Carl Yoshimine reminisced about his conversion:

My soul became parched; I was desperate for relief. Then, I was invited to church by some friends. This was the beginning of my quest for the same joy, peace, and happiness that my friends manifested. They possessed something missing in my life. Drawn by their care, enriched by their fellowship, challenged by their faith, I found myself attending a mid-week Bible study. At one of these sessions, our pastor, Paul Nagano, invited us to accept Christ as our Lord and Savior. On December 4, 1943, another person and I went forward to accept Christ. On that day, my foundation became secure, and everything in my life fell into place. My inner security, my social relationships, my quest for truth—all came into focus because Christ bonded them together in Him. From that moment on, this relationship with Christ has guided my life. . . . Indeed, Christ is my foundation and Savior.[70]

Sadaichi Asai, another young leader in the church, quoted from Psalm 19 to declare God’s glory in the midst of their trial:

The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth His [handiwork]. There is no speech where their voice is not heard (Psalm 19:1, 3). . . . There is beauty all around us. The firmament shows the handiwork of God. The beauty of the sky at dark is indescribable. Sitting under the spreading mesquites, listening to the birds chirp, and watching the ants busily engaged crawling on the ground are all sources of inspiration and encouragement. Moreover, in the serenity of the soul I can hear the stately echoes of the past that bring an inward peace. . . . God has willed this experience in Poston as a requisite in life. In this heat, in this adversity, and in this ordeal, God is molding our lives into a noble character qualified to meet the uncertain difficulties ahead. May the echoes of this desert experience be a source of great stimulus for the future.[71]

Individual testimonies converged in corporate worship as the church sponsored special conferences and holiday services in the camps. One congregant described their first Easter together:

The first Easter in Poston will always remain a day of cherished memories in the lives of the members of our Christian Church. This desert land provided the setting for this memorable day with a beauty all its own. It was begun with the almost necessary function of Easter, the sunrise service in the sandhills. Here we viewed a glorious desert sunrise as our Pastor brought us a stirring message which renewed our faith in the resurrected and living Christ. Breakfast was served in the sands to the crowd of two hundred immediately following the service. The menu of sandwiches and cocoa was prepared by some ambitious early risers of the group at 4:00 a.m. We were very fortunate in having with us on that day, Dr. Frank Herron Smith, who brought to us at the morning worship service a challenging message, “Under Fire with the Living Christ. . . .” At 3:00 p.m. on the banks of the Colorado River, a Baptismal service was held at which time nineteen members of the Church were immersed in the waters of Baptism. Among them was Lloyd Wake. Easter day, a la Poston, will always loom up as one of the highlights of our desert sojourn.[72]

The Poston Christian Church truly embodied the biblical command to follow Christ’s example. On that first Christmas in 1942, as they gathered amidst the terrific dust storms and the forty or fifty miles-per-hour gales, Rev. Kowta had encouraged them to be like Jesus in both their suffering and their exaltation.

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[1] Another young girl wrote, “Yes, that nickname, ‘Roastem, Toastem, Postem’ certainly is true! I am being roasted and toasted by the ever-shining Poston sun” (Louise Ogawa Watanabe, letter to Clara Breed, cited in Oppenheim, Dear Miss Breed, 181). July 1943 reached a record temperature of 144 degrees.

[2] Chiyoko Morita, “My First Few Days in Poston,” Jr. Red Cross, Vols. I & II (San Marino, CA: The Huntington Library). The winters would be just as extreme as described by another ninth-grader: “Cold aching wind that cuts into the pale skin; pure, clean, freezing air that sinks in through the coat, gray lifeless sky that bares a reckless look. This is winter in Poston, Arizona” (Ayoko Shintaku, “Life in Poston in Winter,” Jr. Red Cross, Vols. I & II [San Marino, CA: The Huntington Library]).

[3] Marnie Mueller, “A Daughter’s Need to Know,” in Erica Harth, ed., Last Witnesses (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 103. A “family apartment” for five to eight members measured 20 by 24 feet. Smaller families stayed in a barrack’s end room measuring 16 by 20 feet. Four to six family units made up a barrack and twelve to fourteen barracks comprised a “block.” Thus, each block housed from 250 to 300 residents and contained its own mess hall, laundry room, latrines, and recreation hall.

[4] Personal recollection of Tadashi Kowta cited in “Historic Wintersburg, California,” accessed at http://historicwintersburg.blogspot.com/2013/02/reverend-sohei-kowta-sunday-before.html.

[5] Sod Nakashima, “Remember?” in the Poston III Christian Church News (8 August 1943).

[6] Ibid.

[7] Yoo, Nisei, 115-116.

[8] Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy, 168-69.

[9] Hazel K. Morikawa, “Exodus: Remembered Moments,” in Triumphs, 79-80. WRA policy did not allow Nikkei ministers to be paid a salary by a federal agency, so they either had to work a non-religious job within the camp (with a maximum professional wage of $19 per month), rely upon the meager support of the congregation, or be supported by outside sources. The Nikkei ministers asked the American Baptist Missionary Society to reduce their wages to be commensurate with their fellow internees, but their returned checks were somehow assumed to be donations and the three received letters of thanks instead of adjusted checks. Typically Japanese, the men did not complain, saying that they could survive on free room and board.

[10] “Ministers’ Meeting Minutes,” files of the Poston III Christian Church (6 April 1943).

[11] Nagano, “United States Concentration Camps,” 67.

[12] Tai Shigaki, “Open Doors,” in Triumphs, 68.

[13] OMS Holiness Church in North America, “Christian Activities in the Camps,” accessed at http://kuzuharalibrary.com/history/activities_in_camps.html.

[14] Muts Okada, “A Blessed Life,” in Triumphs, 104.

[15] Kayoko Asai Suzukida, “A Midwestern Nisei’s Wartime Experiences,” in Triumphs, 126.

[16] Letter from Gordon K. Chapman to Jeane Noordhoff (18 June 1942), Fld 40, Chapman Papers.

[17] E.H.S., WRA Reports on the Poston Christian Church (16 August 1942), 2.

[18] Lloyd K. Wake, “God Incarnate,” in Triumphs, 155-56.

[19] Kazuaki Yamada, Los Angeles Japanese American Baptist Church 75th Anniversary Book, 2000.

[20] Morikawa, “Remembered Moments,” in Triumphs, 79-80. Elsewhere, Morikawa also wrote, “Fellow ministers and national staff persons and Christian friends wrote or visited and did countless personal errands for the people. They were all a tremendous lifeline of support and hope, a bridge to the outside world. The reassuring love of the denomination reached us all during our stay behind barbed wires giving us the support we needed” (Hazel T. Morikawa, Footprints: One Man’s Pilgrimage, A Biography of Jitsuo Morikawa [Berkeley, CA: Jennings Associates, Morikawa Pacific Rim Ecumenical Conference, 1990], 76.

[21] “7000 Poston Children in Yuletide Remembrance by Christian Churches,” Poston Chronicle 8.10 (24 December 1942).

[22] Oppenheim, Dear Miss Breed, 144.

[23] May Wake Iwahashi, “An Unforgettable Christmas,” in Triumphs, 37-38.

[24] Ed Nakawatase, “Past is Prologue,” Friends Journal: Quaker Thought and Life Today 38, no. 11 (November 1992), 38. Nakawatase also added, “When everyone else was running in the opposite direction, they responded quite positively. There’s enormous gratitude” (Karen Auerbach, “Old Bond Born of Injustice: Help that Local Quakers Gave to Interned Japanese Americans had a Deep and Lasting Impact,” The Philadelphia Inquirer [22 September 1998].

[25] Momo Iwakiri, “The Spirit of Giving,” The Herald (31 December 1944), 1. Approximately 1,200 gifts were distributed during Christmas 1944 (“Material Blessings of Christmas,” The Redeemer 4.7 [24 December 1944], 1).

[26] Nagano, “United States Concentration Camps,” 71, emphasis in original.

[27] Densho Encyclopedia, “Paul M. Nagano,” accessed at http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Paul%20M.%20Nagano/#Ministry_in_Camp. The Poston III church held two services for the convenience of its worshippers, but they all gathered together on one Sunday each month.

[28] Paul Nagano, interview conducted by Fugita and Fukuda (25 May 1999).

[29] Ibid. 101 Choruses compiled hymns of assurance and joy sung by Nagano and his singing group, “His Majesty’s Envoys” (Rev. Paul Nagano, Densho interview, cited in Fugita and Fernandez, Altered Lives, 173).

[30] Interview with William Kobayashi cited in Suzuki, Ministry, 247-48. Camp I would send thirty teachers to teach the 250 students in Camp II. Nine other teachers from Camp I would teach the 200 students in Camp III (“Vacation School Teachers Go to Camp II” and “Nine Teachers Leave for Camp III Vacation School,” in the Christian Church of Poston [6 September 1942], 1).

[31] T.Y., WRA Reports on the Poston Christian Church, “Christian Daily Vacation Bible School,” 1.

[32] Ibid., 11.

[33] Itsuko Teragawa, “Evacuation Days,” in Triumphs, 141.

[34] Blankenship, Social Justice, 160, citing James Sera, “Religion in Poston” (6 March 1944), Reel 213, JAER; Letter from Kowta to Friend (25 May 1943), Box 12/Fld 3, RG 301.7, Presbyterian Historical Society. The Christian Endeavor Society was founded by Francis E. Clark to reinforce the belief that “all nations should be friends, under the government of Jesus Christ” (“Religion: Christian Endeavor,” Time (11 July 1927); Henry B. MacFarland, “The Christian Endeavor Movement,” North American Review 182 [February 1906]: 196-98).

[35] Wada, “To God Be the Glory,” in Triumphs, 154.

[36] Frances Kaji, “Desert Memories,” in Triumphs, 54.

[37] Yasuko Yamamoto, “What Junior Church Means To Me,” Desert Echoes (1943), 37.

[38] Tets Yamashita, “The Quiet Harbor,” in Triumphs, 168.

[39] Kei Kokobun, “Trusting God,” in Triumphs, 68.

[40] N.M., WRA Reports on the Poston Christian Church, “Volunteers Dedication Services” (15 April 1943), 1.

[41] G.M., WRA Reports on the Poston Christian Church, “Anniversary Service,” 1-3.

[42] Sohei Kowta, Poston Witness, “Anniversary Edition” (6 June 1943), 1.

[43] Hideo Aoki, “Transformation of Wastelands,” Desert Echoes (1943), 10.

[44] Hannah Satow, “American Baptists’ Involvement among Sacramento/Mayhew Japanese Baptists,” American Baptist Quarterly 17, no. 3 (September 1998), 207.

[45] Poston II Christian Church bulletin (27 December 1942).

[46] Kohei Takeda, “We Can Not Escape From God,” The Herald 1.8 (31 October 1943), 1.

[47] “Remember Now Thy Creator In The Days Of Thy Youth (Ecclesiastes 12:1),” The Herald 1.13 (12 December 1943), 1.

[48] Kohei Takeda, “Come Unto Me and I’ll Give You (What Does it Mean to be a Christian?),” Poston II Christian Church bulletin (10 October 1943).

[49] M.F., WRA Reports on the Poston Christian Church, “Observation of Special Combined Service: Father’s Day” (20 June 1943), 1-4.

[50] “We Give Thee Thanks,” The Herald 1.11 (21 November 1943), 1.

[51] Masao Takeshita, “The Passing of Easter,” The Herald (15 April 1945), 1. Dr. Takeshita served as an advisor in the Christian Youth Fellowship and to the editorial staff of The Herald.

[52] Kohei Takeda, “Before I Relocate,” The Herald (29 July 1945), 2.

[53] Alice Hatakeda, “As I Think of Relocation,” The Herald (29 July 1945), 3. Hatakeda also served as church secretary for the Young People’s Christian Church which began to meet on July 12, 1942 (“In Retrospection,” Christian Church News 1.1 [24 January 1943], 1).

[54] Files of the Poston III Christian Church (6 September 1942).

[55] H. Tashiro, “Personality Sketch of Rev. Shosaku Asano (8 November 1942), 1.

[56] Sophie Shizume, “Personality Sketch of Rev. Tameichi Okimoto (29 November 1942), 1.

[57] “Personality Sketch of Rev. K. Imai (25 October 1943), 1.

[58] “Personality Sketch of John Miyabe (6 December 1942), 1.

[59] M. F., interview with Rev. Paul Nagano (12 May 1943), 1-4 and “Personality Sketch of Rev. Paul Nagano (1 September 1942), 1-2.

[60] Paul Nagano, sermon preached in February 1943.

[61] Interview, “Christian Church Library III” (29 April 1943), 1-3.

[62] Information from Public Relations Chairman, “History of III Christian Church of Poston” (23 March 1943), 1-5.

[63] Paul Nagano, Streams in the Desert, a publication of the Poston III Christian Church.

[64] Donald Iwahishi, “Transformed Through the Vicissitudes of Life,” in Triumphs, 36.

[65] Marie Kurihara, “Hope for the Future,” in Triumphs, 70.

[66] Masakazu Konatsu, “Testimony,” Poston III Christian Church newsletter (12 September 1943), Box 5/Fld 2, Bulletins and Newsletters collection, GTU.

[67] Kay Keiko Murakami, “I remember . . . and Give Thanks,” in Triumphs, 82.

[68] OMS Holiness Church of North America, “Arthur Makoto Tsuneishi,” accessed at http://kuzuharalibrary.com/biographies/tsuneishi.html.

[69] Henry Mukai, “Testimony,” The Redeemer 3.17 (9 July 1944), 2.

[70] Carl Yoshimine, “Mounting Up Like an Eagle,” in Triumphs, 171.

[71] Sadaichi Asai, “In Nature,” Desert Echoes (1943), 11. Similarly, Mr. Yoshiya Tsujimoto wrote, “God put His own with people, and in the place which will tend most to develop the spiritual grace. . . . Often our environment is but an answer to our prayers” (Yoshiya Tsujimoto, “Environment,” Desert Echoes [1943], 12-13).

[72] Poston III Christian Church Newsletter (2 May 1943).

[73] Sohei Kowta, “A Christmas Thought,” Christian Church of Poston (20 December 1942), 1. Rev. Kowta would later comment, “The people who wanted to study the Bible, to attend services and meetings had far more freedom to do so than they had had before the evacuation. From that standpoint, center life was a great blessing to the Christian people. Naturally, the work of the churches in the centers was far more active than in the pre-evacuation days. This drew many Nisei who otherwise might have been outside the church today. The churches contributed much, in my opinion, to keep the morale of center life high” (cited in Matsumoto, Beyond Prejudice, 35).