The Jerome Relocation Center in southeastern Arkansas
was a living environment that, at least initially, was soul-destroying, sickening—literally. As the Jerome camp director Paul Taylor conceded to his superiors in Washington, because a sulfite compound had been improperly used to seal pipes in the camp water system, “practically every person . . . suffers a 1 to 3 day case of acute dysentery, upon first arriving at the project.”[1]
Conditions in Jerome were rugged as Nobuko Omi recalled, “One person out of every home would have to volunteer to dig ditches, chop wood and do other things for each block. My husband refused to go so I used a pickax for ditches and two-man saws to cut wood also brought in the coal.”[2] Lillian Sugita remembered,
The camp was right in the middle of thick swampland. In the wintertime it’s cold, wet, soggy, and mud everywhere. When it rained, it didn’t stop. There were huge runoff ditches between the buildings for flood control, but you didn’t have pathways over the ditches. They would be flooded in the summer and iced in the winter. We put down planks so we could walk across. I heard of some drownings.[3]
Jerome Community Christian Church
The church would be a bright spot of hope in this dark time. Mary Tsukamoto, speaking at the camp’s Christian Youth Fellowship in late 1942, acknowledged the “pain, disappointment and degradation” of incarceration, but insisted they could be “overcome with steadfast faith.” Jesus Christ “could turn despair into triumphant joy.” Thus, they would live “eternity day by day.”[4] The Jerome Community Christian Church conducted worship services in both Japanese and English, Sunday school in multiple locations, youth groups, a Young People’s Fellowship, and weekday services for Bible Study and prayer meetings. George Aki and Hideo Hashimoto conducted Wednesday evening Bible study groups and Thursday night choir practices.[5] The church also maintained a religious library and even offered a deaf ministry led by interpreter Ruth Takagi. One Sunday, the church baptized the entire Ikeda family of deaf mutes along with three sisters from the Nagata family: Mary, Ruth, and Sally.[6]
The church often recited common worship liturgies such as the Apostles’ Creed, The Lords’ Prayer, the Gloria Patria,[7] and responsive readings from the Book of Common Prayer.[8] They practiced silent meditation and also sang well-loved hymns such as O Worship the King, The Old Rugged Cross, and The Doxology:
Praise God, from whom all blessings flow;
Praise Him, all creatures here below;
Praise Him above, ye heav’nly host;
Praise Father, Son, and Holy Ghost!”[9]
As converts increased, the leaders made five suggestions to church-comers who were new to the Christian faith:[10]
- The Church is a great place for Fellowship, but let us refrain from vociferous greetings until after the meeting. Let us come into His place of worship in Quiet Meditation. (Habakkuk 2:20)
- Unite in congregation singing with PRAISE, JOY and THANKSGIVING. (Psalm 96:1-2)
- Let us offer to God in His work here, with the prayer that the true foundation of Life be built before we go. (1 Timothy 6:17-19)
- We come to the place of worship to worship and to listen to the voice of God through the minister. Let us receive the word of God into our pure hearts. (Psalm 24:3-4)
- The close of our worship service is the beginning of our week. Let us go out and declare His glory and marvelous works to all whom we meet. (1 Chronicles 16:23-25)
Despite the church’s influence, tensions at Jerome remained high. On March 8, 1943, Rev. John M. Yamazaki was ambushed and beaten by a gang of seven men. He later described the assault:
I was taken out and beaten. The Issei group had some young men to come after me. I was taken out near the fence. . . . On this occasion I did non-resistance. No matter how much they beat me, I let them beat me. Before they beat me, they said, “Reverend, take off your glasses.”
I took off my glasses. I didn’t resist so they couldn’t beat me too much. I was knocked down near a fence, where there was nobody. I fell to the ground. “Stop,” cried the leader, and when they were leaving a voice said, “Reverend, don’t forget your glasses.”[11]
Yamazaki was not seriously injured, but his eyes were blackened and his glasses broken. His co-victim, Thomas T. Yatabe, was also attacked for being the elected leader of the Japanese American Citizen’s League (JACL). Both men were harmed by the pro-Japan faction for “selling out” to the government on internment.[12] Yamazaki appealed to Bishop Reifsnider that evening from the Jerome Center Hospital, “I am in trouble. A very serious one.”[13] The families of both victims were moved to the hospital for protection and eventually relocated from Jerome. Despite the danger, however, Yamazaki rejoiced in being persecuted for the sake of Christ (Matthew 5:10-12), “I am happy in all my being attacked, thrown to the pool of mud, and repeated knocking on face. I never resisted them. Lord protected me. . . . When I received the blow I felt as if my own child was hitting me, for they were my own kind. Each blow reminded me of God’s will teaching me of my own lack of suffering.”[14] Yamazaki cared more for the salvation of these men than for his own well-being and viewed his attackers as children for whom he was willing to sacrifice. Just as Jesus had prayed from the cross, “Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do” (Luke 23:34a), Yamazaki was even willing to give up his life for others (1 Peter 2:19-21).
Ministry in the camp continued on despite such opposition. On Palm Sunday, April 18, 1943, the church baptized forty-three residents in Dining Hall 33. Then on Easter Sunday that year, the choir sang portions of Handel’s Messiah and Rev. George Aki preached a message of exultant victory in Christ:
Burned indelibly into the crowded pages of nineteen centuries of human history is this truth, “The Christ of Easter still lives and reigns.” The exalted mood of Easter breaks through language and escapes. On Easter our hearts throb with the pulse of the life “Invincible.”
It has been since Easter that humble men and women have dedicated their lives to immortal causes, laboring and losing, only to rise again and go on in the face of almost insuperable odds, confidently believing that the defeat of Caesar and his Cross was the guarantee of their own victory through Jesus Christ our Lord.
From that empty tomb and the angels with their first news of the sweeping victory, and leaders of just causes have gone forth to renew their efforts and to shout their triumphs from afar. To the Resurrection, the greatest of truths and events, the Jerome Community Christian Church has dedicated its time and talents.[15]
The church hosted the Jerome Christian Mission on May 16-21, 1943 with many special preachers and missionaries from outside the camp. This conference on the theme, “Christ is the Answer,” attracted over 1,000 attendees.
Jerome and Rohwer were chosen as the first camps for a six-day National Christian Mission—essentially a large-scale revival. In addition to camp ministers such as Hideo Hashimoto and Shin Kanow, recognized white leaders participated, including Albert Shirkey, pastor of the Travis Park Methodist Church in San Antonio, Texas; John B. Cobb, Methodist minister from Spokane, Washington; Jessie Trout, a Disciplines of Christ missionary to Japan, fluent in the language; and most famously, Dr. E. Stanley Jones.[16]
One of the speakers, Dr. Albert P. Shirkey, encouraged the church:
These have been rich and rewarding days. The presence of our Living Lord has been felt in all our hearts. . . . If we walk with Christ, we will maintain the spiritual glow. And our friends will know that our fellowship is with God. Christ is our life. He is our hope for days to come. He is the way in which our feet must walk. He must become our all in all. Let us walk with Him and talk with Him until we can say:
O Son of man, we see in thee,
The only known divinity
O Son of God, we find in thee
The only true humanity
Thou art the bridge o’er which we’ve trod
Into the very heart of God.[17]
The church continued to grow not only through these special revivals, but also through faithful everyday ministry. At the beginning of the 1944 New Year, Rev. Shinpachi Kanow challenged the church to keep pressing on:
During the past year, I am sure that each of us was enabled to draw closer to God, to come to know better His love, and to understand a bit more His ways. Yet, however much we have gained, let us not rest content. Let us strive to aspire to new and greater heights as true followers of our Lord Jesus Christ. In so doing, we will be building stepping stones for His Kingdom, for our faith in Him is a stream which flows continually, and not a stagnant pool.[18]
Major life transitions also provided opportunities for exhortation as Rev. George Aki wrote to the church before setting out to serve as an Army chaplain:
Someone once said that True Leadership meant an influence so great that whether the leader was present or not; still, the people would congregate as though he were right there in the midst of them.
Jesus Christ has that influence over us. Especially do we feel his presence as we gothrough the baptism and communion services. I believe that His presence should prevail in all our meetings and we should feel his nearness in all our dealings with men.
There will be many going out of the center from now on, and we shall miss them very much. Those who have done the most for the people will be missed the most when they leave. And those who have touched the hearts of the others in unselfish service will have been the Greatest Leaders, for they will have left creative leadership in others.[19]
As leaders in the church left for resettlement, others stepped up to take their place. Training became essential for these many new believers serving in ministry for the first time. On March 6-10, 1944, the church held a rigorous training program for Sunday school teachers which included a summary survey of the whole Bible; spiritual development and inspiration; and practical teaching principles.[20] The church equipped new teachers and continued to grow in the soil of adversity. As Rev. Isamu Nakamura wrote,
One of many blessed experiences in Christian life is that one who is in Christ is able to transform doubt, hardship, severe criticism, and sufferings as lamps that shine the path of his soul. Sometimes he may be thrown into a fiery furnace of destructive criticisms; sometimes in a lion’s den of misunderstandings and prejudice. At a time he may suffer from these consequences, but he can always come out his spirit unbroken, because he believes in Christ who strengthen him.[21]
As in the other centers, the Jerome Community Christian Church benefitted from the outside assistance of other Christians. Charlotte Susu-Mago, a Caucasian interned with her Japanese husband, “wrote a play that appeared in the April 1943 issue of the Methodist Woman called ‘Counting on You,’ which urged white Methodist families to assist in resettling Japanese Americans in their communities as part of the church’s missionary work.”[22] The interned church also received Christmas gifts for the children and expressed their gratitude to those who contributed:
“Not by words . . . but by deeds, action. . . . ” The true meaning of Christianity at work was displayed by the Caucasian and relocated Evacuee Christians by their unselfish giving of hundreds of gifts to the children of this center. The true acme of unselfishness was reached by them in that they, gave to us, not knowing to whom they were actually giving. It is a beautiful reflection of the self-sacrificing spirit shown by Jesus when He gave His Life that “Others” might live. Who the others would be, Jesus did not know by name; yet unselfishly he gave . . . and so did our Caucasian and relocated friends. We know that such a noble attitude and action will not be forgotten by us nor by the One who is the Father of us all.[23]
As the Jerome Relocation Center prepared to close by the end June 1944, the church published an article encapsulating its eventful history:
During the past two years we who are of Japanese descent have gone through a variety of experiences; bitter and sweet, discouraging and hopeful, sad and happy. Some, through their experience have become bitter and pessimistic while on the other hand many have cheerfully made the best of their situation. Why this great difference on the outlook of Life? There can be but one answer—CHRIST.
Even though our Church is composed of members of many denominations from various parts of California, Oregon and Washington, we have been able to work and worship harmoniously for our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. As in the case of our experience in the assembly centers most everything was a bit confusing. Yet in spite of this condition we were able to have our first regular worship service soon after the arrival of many from the Santa Anita and Fresno assembly centers. During the remainder of1943 our center’s church was gradually organized. Representatives from various denominations and churches met under the leadership of the ministers to formulate constitution.
On Christmas our choir under the very capable directorship of Miss Mary Kasai and accompanied by Misses Grace and Alice Imamoto the choir sang at the service. Our Sunday School also observed Christmas by giving special Christmas play. The year was brought to a close by an inspiring New Year’s Eve Service under the chairmanship of Mr. Seichi Mikemi.
Our first Easter in Jerome Center was observed by several special services. The traditional Sunrise Service was held in the Denson Park East of Block 30. Rev. George Aki and Rev. K. Inori brought the messages with Rev. Hideo Hashimoto as chairman. At the morning worship service Rev. Hideo Hashimoto delivered the Easter message – Rev. Shinpachi Kanow served as chairman. The Church choir under the directorship of Miss Mary Kasai and accompanied by Miss Alice Imamoto the choir sang “The Messiah” by Handel. . . . The most outstanding event of 1943 was the Christian Mission which was held during the week of May 16-21st. . . . Christmas of 1943 was a great disappointment to all of us in that we were not able to hold any services nor meeting for quite a long time due to “flu epidemic” hitting this center. But through the fine attitude and generosity of the outside church organizations and Christian friends many of our children were cheered and made happy. The spirit of Christmas was not forgotten! . . .
Easter April 16, 1944—“Alleluia Christ Arose!” Because it rained on Easter morning the sunrise service was held in Dining Hall #33. . . . In spite of our handicap together with indecisiveness and the indifference on the part of some people we were able to hold services every Sunday. From time to time we were privileged to hear outside ministers. Through their message and the work of our ministers and lay people many wore led to confess Christ as their Lord and Saviour. We sincerely believe that God’s Spirit led us in all our services and endeavors. Even though our center is being closed. Let us continue to work with more zeal and fervor for Christ and His kingdom. May God bless and guide each of you wherever you may go.[24]
Finally, Rev. Nakamura expressed his closing exhortation to the church:
On the triple-door ways of the Cathedral of Milan are these inscriptions: on the one is: “That which pleases is but for a moment;” over the other is, “That which troubles is but for a moment,” but over the entrance of the main aisle are these words, “That only is important which is eternal.”
Daily we must face new experiences and no one knows what [the] future will bring. Now we are facing an impending transfer movement as a result of the closing of Jerome Relocation Center and we will be separated from our friends and we may not meet again, but let us not forget the important thing in life, that is to build our lives in eternity transforming our daily experiences—joy and sorrow, pleasure and pain and all the rest, into the eternal value with our Eternal Contemporary, Jesus Christ who is the same yesterday, today, and forever. In Him is our peace and poise [in the midst] of confession and chaos![25]
[1] Howard, Concentration Camps, 150, citing “Weekly Report, Week Ending Noon 10-31 1942, Jerome Relocation Center,” Part II, Section 5, Reel 138, JAER, UCB.
[2] Nobuko Lillian Omi, oral interview (El Cerrito, CA, interview conducted on 27 November 1983), Nisei Christian Journey: Its Promise and Fulfillment, vol. 1 (Sacramento, CA: Nisei Christian Oral History Project, 1988), 101.
[3] Lillian Sugita, oral history cited in Ellen Levine, A Fence Away From Freedom: Japanese Americans and World War II (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 51.
[4] Mary Tsukamoto and Elizabeth Pinkerton, We the People: A Story of Internment in America (Elk Grove, CA: Laguna, 1987), 107, 115.
[5] Howard, Concentration Camps, 162.
[6] “Our Unique Baptism Last Sunday,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (23 January 1944).
[7] “Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be world without end. Amen. Amen.”
[8] For example, the congregation would voice in unison the morning prayer of general confession: “Almighty and most merciful Father; We have erred, and strayed from thy ways like lost sheep. We have followed too much the devices and desires of our own hearts. We have offended against thy holy laws. We have left undone those things which we ought to have done; And we have done those things which we ought not to have done; And there is no health in us. But thou, O Lord, have mercy upon us, miserable offenders. Spare thou those, O God, who confess their faults. Restore thou those who are penitent; According to thy promises declared unto mankind In Christ Jesus our Lord. And grant, O most merciful Father, for his sake; That we may hereafter live a godly, righteous, and sober life, To the glory of thy holy Name. Amen” (Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin [4 April 1943]).
[9] Thomas Ken, The Doxology (1709). See Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (4 April 1943 and 11 April 1943).
[10] “Five Suggestions to Church-Comers,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (16 January 1944). These suggestions are still applicable to the church today.
[11] Interview with John M. Yamazaki, cited in Suzuki, Ministry, 307-308. This appeared to be retribution for a comment he had made the night before. An Issei father had asked whether his son should volunteer for the U.S. Army and Yamazaki had answered, “If your son is 21 years of age, let him do what he wants to do.”
[12] Historians have acknowledged that most anti-American agitators were Buddhist: “Christians as a whole are much more cooperative with the Administration, and much more pro-American than non-Christians. . . . Being Christian seems to create a greater possibility of identification with American culture” (G. Gordon Brown, “Religious Organizations,” Final Report on Gila [20 May 1940], manuscript 42, Box 8, File 23, 64. See War Relocation Authority documents, University of Arizona, SpCol. Robert F. Spencer, “A Preliminary Analysis of the Role of Religion in the Gila Relocation Center,” [unpublished manuscript, 1943 Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley], 11).
[13] Letter from John M. Yamazaki to Charles Reifsnider (8 March 1943), Archives of the Episcopal Church, RG 71, Box 172, File 3. Translated by J. H. M. Yamazaki (4 May 1994).
[14] Ibid.
[15] George Aki, “Towering O’er the Wrecks of Time,” sermon preached on Easter 1943, cited in the Denson Tribune (23 April 1943), 4. The church would once again celebrate the following year with a sunrise service, a passion play called “The Gift,” and a joint worship service (Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin [9 April 1944]).
[16] Howard, Concentration Camps, 170. See “The Christian Mission Week, Jerome Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, May 26, 1943,” Community Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the War Relocation Authority, 1942-1946, microfilm publication M1342, Reel 19, WRAR, NA.
[17] Albert P. Shirkey, “Maintain the Spiritual Glow,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (23 May 1943).
[18] Shinpachi Kanow, “Your Minister Speaks,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (16 January 1944).
[19] George Aki, “Your Minister Speaks,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (30 January 1944). The church held a special send-off service for George Aki on February 1, 1944.
[20] “The Training Program,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (5 March 1944).
[21] Isamu Nakamura, “Your Minister Speaks,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (26 March 1944).
[22] Howard, Concentration Camps, 169-70.
[23] “Christianity in Action,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (16 January 1944). Regrettably, the church had to cancel all Christmas meetings and programs that year due to a violent flu and pneumonia epidemic throughout the center.
[24] “Our Church,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (June 1944).
[25] Isamu Nakamura, “Your Minister Speaks,” Jerome Community Christian Church Bulletin (June 1944).
